Instead of definitions of pedagogy, we will introduce this topic through the historical development of pedagogy . Methods, theories and principles in education have been developing for several centuries and their application in online distance education systems is inevitable.
Systematic teaching began over a thousand years ago in old Sumerian, Egyptian and ancient Greek civilizations, but it was conducted for the chosen few only. It was only at the beginning of the 17th century in some small European states that mass education of the youth began and first educational curricula were developed.
Ancient period and higher education
Of all the pedagogical methods from the ancient Greek time, the most well known is probably the so-called Socratic teaching by asking questions , illustrated in Plato’s masterpiece "The Republic" . Socrates is one of the best known philosophers of the ancient Greece, and his dialogue method is popular even today, especially in the educational area that uses the so-called critical thinking and law education. Socrates’ disciple Plato founded the Academy in 387 B.C., considered to be the first higher education institution. Plato’s most famous disciple Aristotle suggested to divide knowledge into special areas, out of which every area was supposed to have its own methodology and research theme. In 335 B.C. Aristotle founded Lyceum in Athens , the first scientific-research and education “polytechnic” in the world. Other than that, the greatest library of the ancient period was in Alexandria and contained many scientific and cultural achievements of the Hellenic era.
First higher education institutions
First higher education institutions after the ancient Greece were founded by the Arabs at the end of the first millennium A.D. in the area of northern Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. In the Islamic nations of that period education was especially well developed and there existed many and diverse schools. Soon after higher education institutions in the Muslim countries, first medieval universities appeared in Western Europe. The first was the University of Bologna in 1088, while the university in Paris was founded in 1119, and in Oxford in 1167. The manner of studying and the organisation of these first higher education institutions were especially interesting. The first universities were to a large extent international and mutually connected, and many of the professors and students moved from one university to another. It is interesting that many of the initial university teachers were directly paid by their students, and those professors that could attract a greater number of students were held in an especially high regard. Students could therefore influence the curriculum as well as the teaching methods and the unsuccessful lecturers would lose their jobs. At the time the scholastic method of text interpretation and combining ideas in complex ways were especially popular, as well as the verbal discussion method.
Moving towards modern pedagogy
The beginnings of modern pedagogy are related to the work of a Check pedagogue Jan Amos Komenski (1592-1670). His suggestions were, among other things, related to the school system which would have defined subjects, a special book as the source of knowledge for each subject and a precisely determined beginning and curriculum for the year, month, week and day. Komenski particularly emphasized the principles of gradualism (e.g. "from the easier to the harder" and "from the known to the unknown"), as well as the need for demonstration of the content of instruction. His idea written in a book “Great Didactics” is especially interesting: "In order to memorize things more easily, senses should be employed as much as possible. For example, hearing should be constantly connected with seeing, speech with the hands, not only by telling the students what they should learn, but by painting it as well, in order to impress things upon their minds through their eyes."
In the history of pedagogy Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1814) also played an important role by trying to harmonize the instruction process with the psychological patterns. He also introduced the term of the instruction unit with a precisely defined class structure based on didactics. According to Herbart, instruction is based on the following four degrees: (1) "clarity" or vividness helping to get to know the content and keep the learners’ attention ; (2) "association" or connecting the newly learned content with the previously acquired content , e.g. talking to students using comparisons, to find links between the old and the new content; (3) "system" or connecting knowledge into units ; (4) "method" related to the students’ activity, practicing and practical application of the acquired knowledge .
Georg Kerschensteiner’s (1 854-1932) is especially important for the introduction of new instruction modes emphasizing the importance of learning as opposed to the process of teaching. B y emphasizing individualisation greater compatibility is achieved between what is being taught in relation to the student’s personality , thus improving the educational process. Instead of verbal presentation of the teacher, Kerschensteiner emphasizes the usefulness of the student individual work and effort to acquire knowledge through work. Schools should have rooms in which students would be able to conduct individual practical work in laboratories and workshops, and where the instruction should to a greater extent engage the students in a way that learning is conducted in a group, a pair or individually, instead of ex cathedra lectures in front of the class .
Helen Parkhurst (1886-1971) is also considered to be one of the reform-pedagogues. She developed her pedagogical ideas in a high school in a small town of Dalton, USA, after which her teaching was given a name. Her so-called Dalton plan provides a possibility for the students to choose between several levels of problem difficulty depending on the students’ capacities, where students themselves set the pace at which they will work. The teacher determines individually with each student what and how they want to learn, after which students are given written instructions for independent study. There are monthly and weekly assignments and new assignments are given only after the previous have been completed. This allows the certain students to advance much faster in simpler subjects in relation to the others, so classes organized according to the children’s age are no longer appropriate for most of the subjects. Students work in special work spaces while subject-matter teachers monitor their progress and help them in independent mastering of the given instructional tasks.
Especially significant revolution in the student-teacher relationship was started by Alexander S. Neill (1883-1973) with the so-called Summerhill school , which is characterized by the students’ freedom and attaching importance to their personality and social needs. Students have the same rights in deciding as the teachers , which consequently lost a lot of their privileges and authority . Instead of compulsory attendance, discipline and punishment, the school attempts to attract students with interesting programs, play and free work, as well as to encourage them to learn. Emphasis is put on learning in a group and socializing through different activities , many of which are recreational.
Among numerous other pedagogical models, the project method developed by John Dewey (1859-1952) and William H. Kilpatrick (1871-1965) should be especially emphasized. Dewey wanted to develop a school in which the students could explore, create and experiment. A school which formally divided educational content into study areas, lessons, subjects and tasks was not in congruence with the student needs for comprehensive learning. In stead, Dewey school-laboratory should encourage students to work independently in workshops and laboratories as in a natural environment. A student is learning by thinking about problems and trying to solve them. This approach emphasizes the importance of mastering problems present in a community and mutual help and fitting into a community , while the educational activity should be guided by the instinctive and impulsive activities of the students. The students’ fitting in into a community is based on their organization of individual tendencies and activities, where their awareness of the collective and cooperative action is emphasized. Kilpatrick continued developing Dewey’s postulates and developed the so-called project method in which the students work in groups on a certain project, according to their interests and in agreement with their teacher. A project begins by posing a problem and giving hypotheses about the possible solution, continues by planning and conducting problem-solving activities, and ends by concluding and the application of these conclusions in practice. This method equally develops individual abilities as well as socialization through group work. The professor only organizes the work and provides advice, so students become a lot more independent and resourceful problem solvers.
This page describes some of the more important people and concepts that have shaped the development of pedagogy. This development was especially intensive in the 20th century. Instead of theoretical definitions of pedagogy, we provided a brief overview of the more important people that have influenced pedagogy.
Tips & tricks: Consider what elements from the history of pedagogy can be recognized in current e-education trends, and what elements you can try to include when designing a methodological approach and developing content for your own online course.
